A 59,000-year-old molar from Chagyrskaya Cave proves Neanderthals performed intentional dental surgery — drilling out infected tissue with stone tools, long before any known human medical procedure. The hole's shape, microscopic scratch patterns and signs of long-term post-procedure tooth wear all confirm this was skilled, targeted treatment. Neanderthals weren't primitive brutes; they diagnosed pain, selected tools and endured invasive procedures to heal.